Exploring the Bidirectional Relationship Between Global Citizenship and Social Media Competence

Servet Demir; Bulent Tarman; Emin Kilinc; Saule Yussupova

doi:10.66815/ejecs/2754

Authors

Servet Demir Independent Researcher, Gaziantep https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1360-2871
Bulent Tarman Turan University, Almaty https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1615-9943
Emin Kilinc Faculty of Education, Wilfrid Laurier University https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5346-4488
Saule Yussupova Turan University, Almaty https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6100-8194

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.66815/ejecs/2754

Keywords:

Global Citizenship, Social Media Competence, PLS-SEM, Second-Order Structural Equation Modeling, Digital Literacy

Abstract

This study investigates the bidirectional predictive links between global citizenship and social media competence through the application of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The study utilized data gathered from 353 university students enrolled at Turan University. Two structural models were tested through second-order reflective structures. In Model 1, global citizenship (social responsibility, global competence, global civic engagement) predicted the dimensions of social media competence (technical usability, content interpretation, content generation, anticipatory reflection). In Model 2, the direction was inverted to investigate the predictive capacity of social media competence regarding the facets of global citizenship. The results reveal that all structural paths in both models are statistically significant. In Model 1, the content generation dimension had the greatest effect (β = 0.513, f² = 0.357). In Model 2, global civic engagement emerged as the most strongly predicted dimension (β = 0.447, f² = 0.249). However, Model 2 did not describe the social responsibility dimension very well (R² = 0.034). R² values ranged from weak to moderate (0.034–0.263). A comparison of the two models indicated that global citizenship exerts a more significant influence on social media competence than vice versa. The findings indicate that an integrated approach to global citizenship education and digital literacy initiatives may be beneficial.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

👁 Abstract Views: 426📥 PDF Downloads: 59

Author Biographies

Servet Demir, Independent Researcher, Gaziantep

is an Associate Professor in Educational Sciences, based in Gaziantep, Türkiye. His research centers on psychometrics and scale development, structural equation modeling (SEM/ESEM/PLS-SEM), and network psychometrics, with applied interests in educational technology, technology integration, and artificial intelligence literacy and attitudes. He has published widely in international and national journals, drawing on cross-cultural samples from Türkiye, Russia, and Central Asia, and contributes regularly as a peer reviewer for educational research journals. E-mail: servetdemirtr27@gmail.com

Bulent Tarman, Turan University, Almaty

Department of Research, Science and Innovation, International Studies, Turan University, Almaty, Kazakhstan. Prof. Dr. Bulent Tarman has been working as a research faculty at Turan University, Almaty, Kazakhstan. He holds a Ph.D. in Curriculum & Instruction (social studies education), as well as a minor in Comparative and International Education, from the Pennsylvania State University.

Emin Kilinc, Faculty of Education, Wilfrid Laurier University

is a research scholar in the Faculty of Education at Wilfrid Laurier University. He completed his Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction at Texas A&M University. His research interests include global citizenship education, social studies education, and technology integration. Dr. Kilinc has served as the principal investigator of three nationwide research projects and has worked as an expert for the European Union.

Saule Yussupova, Turan University, Almaty

is a senior lecturer at the Higher School of International Relations and Diplomacy, Turan University. She completed her doctoral studies at Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Ankara, and holds a PhD in Sociology, Philosophy and related fields. She was awarded grant funding for young postdoctoral scientists under the “Zhas Galym” project of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan. She received the Ahmed Yassawi University scholarship for her master’s thesis and the TÜBİTAK 2215 Graduate Scholarship. Her research interests include gender studies, global citizenship, education, and feminism.

References

Abreu, R. (2026). The complexity of giving voice: Intersectionality as method in the study of instagram and marginalised identities. Feminist Encounters: A Journal of Critical Studies in Culture and Politics, 10(1), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.20897/femenc/17897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20897/femenc/17897

Alber, J. M., Bernhardt, J. M., Stellefson, M., Weiler, R. M., Anderson-Lewis, C., Miller, M. D., & MacInnes, J. (2015). Designing and testing an inventory for measuring social media competency of Certified Health Education Specialists. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17(9), e221. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.4943 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.4943

Amos, R., & Carvalho, P. (2020). Locating a course on environmental justice in theories of environmental education and global citizenship. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 14(2), 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973408220980867 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0973408220980867

Assyltayeva, E.., Tarman, B., Ishmukhamedov, S.., Mukhambedyarova, A.., Tolen, Z.., & Yussupova, S. (2024). Civil Identity of Young Kazakhstanis in the Context of the Russian-Ukrainian Conflict. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 11(2), 81–104. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/2052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/2052

Aydin, H., Ogurlu, U., Andrew, K., Masalimova, A. R., Dorozhkin, E. M., & Malygin, A. A. (2019). High school students’ perceptions of global citizenship in central public high schools: Implications for teacher educators. Revista de Cercetare Si Interventie Sociala, 65, 187–205. https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.65.12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.65.12

Bapayeva, S., Tarman, B., Kassymzhanova, A. et al. (2024). Decoding the nexus of stress tolerance, personal readiness for change, and psychological factors using PLS-SEM. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11, 1543. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04079-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04079-x

Bennett, W. L., Wells, C., & Rank, A. (2009). Young citizens and civic learning: Two paradigms of citizenship in the digital age. Citizenship Studies, 13(2), 105–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621020902731116 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13621020902731116

Blankendaal-Tran, K. N., Meulenbroeks, R. F. G., & van Joolingen, W. R. (2023). Digital Research Skills in Secondary Science Education: A Guiding Framework and University Teachers’ Perception. European Journal of STEM Education, 8(1), Article 03. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/13017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/13017

Bradt, N. K. (2024). Gender Differences in Transnational Youth’s Perceptions of Global Citizenship Education. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 15(5), 226-265. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/6069/715

Brady, B., Chaskin, R. J., & McGregor, C. (2020). Promoting civic and political engagement among marginalized urban youth in three cities: Strategies and challenges. Children and Youth Services Review, 116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105184 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105184

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Dash, G., & Paul, J. (2021). CB-SEM vs PLS-SEM methods for research in social sciences and technology forecasting. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 173(July), 121092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121092 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121092

de Vries, M. (2020). Enacting critical citizenship: An intersectional approach to global citizenship education. Societies, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10040091 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10040091

Diller, E. (2001). Citizens in service: The challenge of delivering civic engagement training to national service programs. Corporation for National Service.

Eizadirad, A., Kilinc, E., & Straub, J. (2026). Introduction: Activist Scholarship as Community-Centered Research for Social Change. Research in Educational Policy and Management, 8(1), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2026.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2026.6

Engel, L. C., Rutkowski, D., & Thompson, G. (2019). Toward an international measure of global competence? A critical look at the PISA 2018 framework. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 17(2), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2019.1642183 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2019.1642183

Franch, S. (2020). Global citizenship education: A new ‘moral pedagogy’ for the 21st century? European Educational Research Journal, 19(6), 506–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120929103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120929103

Gómez-Quintero, J. D., & Abad-Villamor, A. I. (2021). Rural population and global citizenship: information, media and opinions on world problems. SN Social Sciences, 1(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-021-00160-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-021-00160-3

Greenhow, C., & Chapman, A. (2020). Social distancing meet social media: digital tools for connecting students, teachers, and citizens in an emergency. In Information and Learning Science (Vol. 121, Numbers 5–6, pp. 331–342). Emerald Group Holdings Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-04-2020-0134 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-04-2020-0134

Greenhow, C., & Lewin, C. (2016). Social media and education: reconceptualizing the boundaries of formal and informal learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 41(1), 6–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2015.1064954 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2015.1064954

Habibah, S. M., & Sapriyah. (2021). Global citizenship education: A framework of civic literacy in Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211223.106 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211223.106

Hair, J. F., Hult, T., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2022). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (3rd ed). Sage Publication. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7

Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679190202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679190202

Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203

Han, S. H., & Li, A. Z. (2023). Community Engagement. In S. H. Han & A. Z. Li (Eds.), A Hundred Stories: Industrial Heritage Changes China (pp. 31–115). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8614-7_2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8614-7_2

Harshman, J. (2018). Developing global citizenship through critical media literacy in the social studies. Journal of Social Studies Research, 42(2), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2017.05.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2017.05.001

Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

Hensley, M., Waters, S., Kenna, J., & Russell, W. (2023). Examining Demographics and Perceived ‘Sense of Community’ of Social Media-Based Professional Learning Communities. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 8(2), 68-82. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.12

Hunter, B., White, G. P., & Godbey, G. C. (2006). What does it mean to be globally competent? Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 267–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315306286930 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315306286930

Japar, M., Situmorang, R., Hermanto, H., Muyaroah, S., Alfani, H., Ma’arif, M., & Fitriyani. (2025). Strengthening Political Tolerance through a Digital-Based Democratic Education Model at Baturaja University, Indonesia. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 16(4), 380-413. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/6820/765

Jenkins, H., Shresthova, S., Gamber-Thompson, L., Kligler-Vilenchik, N., & Zimmerman, A. (2016). By any media necessary: The new youth activism. In By Any Media Necessary. New York University Press.

Kapoor, U., & Seinfield, R. (2019). The role of a responsible global citizen (Gitizen) in the 21st century: The need, the challenges and the future. Journal of Technology Management for Growing Economies, 10(1), 7–17. https://doi.org/10.15415/jtmge.2019.101001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15415/jtmge.2019.101001

Kaya, M. (2022). Blind patriotism is out and constructive patriotism is in: Critical thinking is the key to global citizenship. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 13(2), 103–124. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4074/564

Kenna, J., & Hensley, M. (2023). Social studies and social media: Status among K-12 Tennessee teachers before COVID. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 8(2), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.14 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.14

Kettunen, J., Sampson, J. P., & Vuorinen, R. (2015). Career practitioners’ conceptions of competency for social media in career services. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 43(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2014.939945 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2014.939945

Kilinc, E., & Korkmaz, U. (2015). From national to global citizenship Turkish perspectives on the meaning of global citizenship. In M. Merryfield & T. Augustine J. Harshman (Eds.), Research in Global Citizenship Education (pp. 163–188). Information Age Publishing Charlotte, NC. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-68123-069-620251009

Kilinç, E., & Tarman, B. (2022). Citizenship types, social media use and speaking a foreign language as predictors of global competence. Citizenship Teaching & Learning, 17(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1386/ctl_00081_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1386/ctl_00081_1

Knowles, R. T., Camicia, S., & Nelson, L. (2023). Education for democracy in the social media century. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 8(2), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.9

Kopish, M., & Marques, W. (2020). Leveraging technology to promote global citizenship in teacher education in the United States and Brazil. In Research in Social Sciences and Technology (Vol. 5, Number 1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.3

Kymlicka, W., & Norman, W. (1994). Return of the citizen: A survey of recent work on citizenship theory. In Ethics (Vol. 104, Number 2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/293605

Lee, R. B., Baring, R., Maria, M. S., & Reysen, S. (2017). Attitude towards technology, social media usage and grade-point average as predictors of global citizenship identification in Filipino University Students. International Journal of Psychology, 52(3), 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12200

Lorenzini, M. (2013). From global knowledge to global civic engagement. Journal of Political Science Education, 9(4), 417–435. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2013.835559 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2013.835559

Lumsden, D. (2026). Coding For Equity: Click, Code, Change - How AI Empowers Activist Education. Research in Educational Policy and Management, 8(1), 55-70. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2026.4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2026.4

Matang, M., Sapriya, S., Suryadi, K., Darmawan, C., & Anggraeni, L. (2023). Social media as a means for students to become global citizens. Harmoni Sosial: Jurnal Pendidikan IPS, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.21831/hsjpi.v10i1.57729 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/hsjpi.v10i1.57729

Meng, Q., Zhu, C., & Cao, C. (2018). Chinese international students’ social connectedness, social and academic adaptation: the mediating role of global competence. Higher Education, 75(1), 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0129-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0129-x

Morais, D. B., & Ogden, A. C. (2011). Initial development and validation of the global citizenship scale. Journal of Studies in International Education, 15(5), 445–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315310375308 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315310375308

Muchtarom, M., Raharjo, R., & Suryaningsih, A. (2026). AI as a Pedagogical Partner: A Value-Based Framework for Digital Ethics in Civic Education. Journal of Culture and Values in Education, 9(1), 313-334. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2026.14 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2026.14

Mulyono, D., Rijal, A., Supriyanto, S., Isbandiyah, I., Elly, A., Supriyadi, T., Butayev, U., & Abduraximov, S. (2026). Designing a Project-Based Training Model for Enhancing Pedagogical Competence of Prospective Elementary Teachers Through Interactive Media Development. Journal of Culture and Values in Education, 9(2), 246-267. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2026.28 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2026.28

OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 results: Combined executive summaries: I. www.oecd.org/about/publishing/corrigenda.htm

OECD. (2020). PISA 2018 results (Volume VI): Are students ready to thrive in an interconnected world? OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/d5f68679-en DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/d5f68679-en

Pashby, K., da Costa, M., Stein, S., & Andreotti, V. (2020). A meta-review of typologies of global citizenship education. Comparative Education, 56(2), 144–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2020.1723352 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2020.1723352

Pathak-Shelat, M. (2018). Social media and youth: Implications for global citizenship education. In The Palgrave Handbook of Global Citizenship and Education (pp. 539–555). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59733-5_34 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59733-5_34

Paula, L. (2020). Community involvement in local development: theoretical analysis of community development approaches. Rural Development 2019, 2019(1), 451–457. https://doi.org/10.15544/rd.2019.064 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15544/RD.2019.064

Perry, L., Stoner, K. R., Stoner, L., Wadsworth, D., Page, R., & Tarrant, M. A. (2013). The importance of global citizenship to higher education: The role of short-term study abroad. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 3(2), 184–194. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJESBS/2013/2910 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/BJESBS/2013/2910

Polanco-Levicán, K., & Salvo-Garrido, S. (2022). Understanding social media competence: A systematic review of the concept and its competences. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Vol. 19, Number 14). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148807 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148807

Pontes, A. I., Henn, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2019). Youth political (dis)engagement and the need for citizenship education: Encouraging young people’s civic and political participation through the curriculum. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 14(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197917734542 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197917734542

Radhouane, M., & Maleq, K. (2020). Global citizenship education in European multicultural contexts: Opportunities and challenges. In Global Citizenship Education: Critical and International Perspectives (pp. 157–174). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44617-8_12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44617-8_12

Rapoport, A., & Demir, V. (2022). Social studies teachers’ interpretations of global citizenship. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 13(4), 1–23. www.jsser.org

Reimers, F. M. (2009). Global competency: educating the world. Harvard International Review, 30(4), 22–26.

Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013). A model of global citizenship: Antecedents and outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 48(5), 858–870. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.701749 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.701749

Ringle, C. M., Wende, S., & Becker, J.-M. (2022). SmartPLS 4. Oststeinbek: SmartPLS GmbH. In J. Appl. Struct. Equ. Model.

Sarstedt, M., & Cheah, J. H. (2019). Partial least squares structural equation modeling using SmartPLS: a software review. In Journal of Marketing Analytics (Vol. 7, Number 3, pp. 196–202). Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41270-019-00058-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41270-019-00058-3

Schiff, D. S., Lee, J., Borenstein, J., & Zegura, E. (2024). The impact of community engagement on undergraduate social responsibility attitudes. Studies in Higher Education, 49(7), 1151–1167. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2023.2260414 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2023.2260414

Schreurs, L., & Vandenbosch, L. (2021). Introducing the Social Media Literacy (SMILE) model with the case of the positivity bias on social media. Journal of Children and Media, 15(3), 320–337. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1809481 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1809481

Shmueli, G., Sarstedt, M., Hair, J. F., Cheah, J., Ting, H., Vaithilingam, S., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). Predictive model assessment in PLS-SEM: guidelines for using PLSpredict. European Journal of Marketing, 53(11), 2322–2347. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejm-02-2019-0189 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-02-2019-0189

Si, E., & Lee, G. (2023). Moderating effects of digital citizenship on problematic digital media use and children’s happiness: A cross‐sectional study. Journal of School Health, 93(6), 485–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13275 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13275

Sorrells, K. (2020). Social justice, diversity, and intercultural–global citizenship education in the global context. In The Routledge handbook of language and intercultural communication (pp. 376–394). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003036210-29

Sun, H., Xue, M., Qian, L., Zhou, T., Jiling, Q., Zhou, J., Junchao, Q., Siqi, J., Yuan, B., Yicheng, H., Shaung, W., Chen, Y., You, J., & Liu, Y. (2023). Nursing undergraduates’ media competence in the context of health communication and its relationship to professionalism. Nursing Open, 10(8), 5521–5530. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.1791 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.1791

Swarts, G. (2020). Re/coding global citizenship: How information and communication technologies have altered humanity… and created new questions for global citizenship education. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 5(1), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4

Tarman, B., & Kilinc, E. (2023). Predicting high school students’ global civic engagement: A multiple regression analysis. Journal of Social Studies Research, 47(1), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2022.02.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2022.02.001

Usmia, R., & Samsuri. (2023). The innovation of civic education studies in Indonesia: A theoretical review of global citizenship education (pp. 584–596). https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-022-0_62 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-022-0_62

Välimaa, J., Nokkala, T., & Romanenko, K. (2023). Cultural contributions of higher education. In Assessing the Contributions of Higher Education (pp. 262–285). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035307173.00023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035307173.00023

Vankov, D., Sfet, I., Vankov, B., Jankovszky, D. & Molnár, É. (2024). European Youth Strategy awareness and EU participation: Evaluating the intervention impact on young people's European citizenship in four countries, Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 15(4), 374-398. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/6043/706

Vanolo, A. (2016). Is there anybody out there? The place and role of citizens in tomorrow’s smart cities. Futures, 82, 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2016.05.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2016.05.010

Wolk, S. (2009). Reading for a better world: Teaching for social responsibility with young adult literature. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(8), 664–673. https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.52.8.2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.52.8.2

Wong, K. K.-K. (2019). Mastering partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS in 38 hours. IUniverse.

Xu, S., Yang, H. H., MacLeod, J., & Zhu, S. (2019). Social media competence and digital citizenship among college students. Convergence, 25(4), 735–752. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856517751390 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856517751390

Yari, N., Lankut, E., Alon, I., & Richter, N. F. (2020). Cultural intelligence, global mindset, and cross-cultural competencies: a systematic review using bibliometric methods. In European J. International Management (Vol. 14, Number 2). 1-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/EJIM.2020.105567

Yoganathan, V., Osburg, V. S., & Bartikowski, B. (2021). Building better employer brands through employee social media competence and online social capital. Psychology and Marketing, 38(3), 524–536. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21451 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21451

Yüksel, A., & Ereş, F. (2018). The correlation between global citizenship perceptions and cultural intelligence levels of teachers. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(5), 1069–1076. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2018.060528 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2018.060528

Yussupova, S., & Tarman, B. (2025). Cultural empathy and school climate in Kazakhstan: A factor and cluster analysis of students’ perceptions. Journal of Curriculum Studies Research, 7(1), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2025.3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2025.3

Yussupova, S., Tarman, B., Kilinc, E., Tolen, Z., & Assyltayeva, E. (2023). Adaptation of the Global Citizenship Scale in a multicultural country: Kazakhstan. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 14(3), 305–327.

Žegunienė, V. (2020). Global citizenship education: Parents’ reflections. SOCIETY. INTEGRATION. EDUCATION. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference, 3, 765. https://doi.org/10.17770/sie2020vol3.4821 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17770/sie2020vol3.4821

Zhu, S., Hao Yang, H., Xu, S., & MacLeod, J. (2020). Understanding social media competence in higher education: Development and validation of an instrument. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(8), 1935–1955. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633118820631 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633118820631