The Impact of Acculturation and Religiosity on Cultural Alignment: Terror Management Mechanisms among Muslim Americans

Farah Taha Goheer; Jaclyn K. Doherty; Joel R. Sneed; Claudia Brumbaugh

doi:10.29333/ejecs/1641

Authors

Farah Taha Goheer https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2518-5083
Jaclyn K. Doherty https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9945-4437
Joel R. Sneed https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1449-6839
Claudia Brumbaugh Queens College, City University of New York https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6101-1294

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/1641

Keywords:

Terror management theory, immigration, culture, acculturation, Muslims

Abstract

The current investigation examined terror management defenses employed by Muslim Americans and moderating effects of acculturation and religiosity. Associations between death salience and worldview defense were predicted to vary according to acculturation and religious commitment. Study 1 measured acculturation and reactions to traditional or modern Muslim targets. Study 2 assessed religiosity and acculturation effects on reactions to a worldview-threatening essay. Against expectations, heightened mortality salience did not result in the typical increase in worldview defense, nor was there a moderating effect of acculturation or religiosity. Furthermore, the relationship between mortality salience and worldview defense was not moderated by acculturation or religiosity. Thus, when confronted with existential threats, Muslim Americans may not separate their religious and secular worldviews to defend against mortality concerns. Although the pattern of results was unexpected, this study provides novel information suggesting that Muslim Americans may handle mortality salience in ways not yet revealed by previous TMT studies.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Farah Taha Goheer

Dr. Farah Goheer earned her Ph.D. from the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and completed a postdoctoral fellowship in clinical neuropsychology at the Shepherd Center in Atlanta, GA, following her pre-doctoral clinical internship at Rusk Rehabilitation, New York University Langone Health. Dr. Goheer is currently a clinical neuropsychologist at the Neurocognitive Specialty Group, a private practice in Atlanta, GA. Her clinical and research interests focus on serving demographically and diagnostically diverse populations, with a strong commitment to providing compassionate, culturally sensitive, and patient-centered care to individuals from various backgrounds.

Jaclyn K. Doherty

Dr. Jaclyn Doherty is a Research Associate at Springtide Research Institute, a non-profit organization that applies social scientific methodologies to learn from and about young people ages 13 to 25. She earned her Ph.D. in social psychology from The City University of New York’s Graduate Center. Her research in academia focuses on religious and spiritual identity in social spaces, including interfaith romantic relationships and religious identity in the sciences.

Joel R. Sneed

Dr. Joel R. Sneed obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts Amherst. He completed post-doctoral training in statistics at New York University and geriatric neuropsychiatry at Columbia University. Dr. Sneed is a clinical psychologist and completed his training in psychoanalysis at Columbia University's Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research. He is a Professor of Psychology at Queens College of the City University of New York. His research has focused on vascular depression, executive dysfunction, and computerized cognitive training in late-life depression and mild cognitive impairment.

Claudia Brumbaugh, Queens College, City University of New York

Dr. Claudia Brumbaugh is a Professor in the Psychology Department at Queens College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. Dr. Brumbaugh is a social-personality psychologist who primarily researches adult attachment. A substantial portion of her research centers on people’s level of self-awareness in relationship initiation processes, as well as how people handle romantic breakups. The diversity of NYC has led her to develop research projects that address the roles of culture, religious values, and sexual identity in people’s emotional and attachment experiences.

References

Abu-Rayya, H. M., & Abu-Rayya, M. H. (2009). Acculturation, religious identity, and psychological well-being among Palestinians in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(4), 325–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.05.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.05.006

Ahmad, D. (2009). Not yet beyond the veil: Muslim women in American popular literature. Social Text, 27(2), 105–131. https://doi.org/10.1215/01642472-2008-024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/01642472-2008-024

Ahmed, S., Amer, M., & Killawi, A. (2017). The ecosystems perspective in social work: Implications for culturally competent practice with American Muslims. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 36, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2017.1311245 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2017.1311245

Ahmed, S. R., Kia-Keating, M., & Tsai, K. H. (2011). A structural model of racial discrimination, acculturative stress, and cultural resources among Arab American adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9424-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9424-3

Amer, M. M., & Bagasra, A. (2013). Psychological research with Muslim Americans in the age of Islamophobia: Trends, challenges, and recommendations. American Psychologist, 68(3), 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032167 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032167

Andersen, S. M., & Baum, A. (1994). Transference in interpersonal relations: Inferences and affect based on significant‐other representations. Journal of Personality, 62(4), 459–497. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00306.x

Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Simon, L. (1997). Suppression, accessibility of death-related thoughts, and cultural worldview defense: Exploring the psychodynamics of terror management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.5

Asvat, Y., & Malcarne, V. L. (2008). Acculturation and depressive symptoms in Muslim university students: Personal–family acculturation match. International Journal of Psychology, 43(2), 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590601126668 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590601126668

Becker, E. (1973). The denial of death (1st ed.). Free Press.

Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), 697–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013

Berry, J. W., & Sam, D. L. (1997). Acculturation and adaptation. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (Subsequent edition, Vol. 3, pp. 291–326). Allyn & Bacon.

Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H. (2010). Two decades of terror management theory: A meta-analysis of mortality salience research. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2), 155–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309352321 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309352321

Castano, E., & Dechesne, M. (2005). On defeating death: Group reification and social identification as immortality strategies. European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 221–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280500436024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280500436024

Chan, L. C., & Yap, C. C. (2009). Age, gender, and religiosity as related to death anxiety. Sunway Academic Journal, 6, 1–16.

Ciftci, S. (2012). Islamophobia and threat perceptions: Explaining anti-Muslim sentiment in the West. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 32(3), 293–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2012.727291 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2012.727291

Cohen, A. B., Malka, A., Rozin, P., & Cherfas, L. (2006). Religion and unforgivable offenses. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 85–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00370.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00370.x

Coutin, S. B. (2003). Cultural logics of belonging and movement Transnationalism, naturalization, and U.S. immigration politics. American Ethnologist, 30(4), 508–526. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.2003.30.4.508 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.2003.30.4.508

Das, E., Bushman, B. J., Bezemer, M. D., Kerkhof, P., & Vermeulen, I. E. (2009). How terrorism news reports increase prejudice against outgroups: A terror management account. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(3), 453–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.001

Deaux, K. (2000). Surveying the landscape of immigration: Social psychological perspectives. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 10(5), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1298(200009/10)10:5%3C421::aid-casp598%3E3.0.co;2-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1298(200009/10)10:5<421::AID-CASP598>3.0.CO;2-Y

Dechesne, M., Pyszczynski, T., Arndt, J., Ransom, S., Sheldon, K. M., van Knippenberg, A., & Janssen, J. (2003). Literal and symbolic immortality: The effect of evidence of literal immortality on self-esteem striving in response to mortality salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 722–737. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.722 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.722

Eaton, N. R. (2015). Hijab, religiosity, and psychological wellbeing of Muslim women in the United States. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 9(2), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.3998/jmmh.10381607.0009.202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3998/jmmh.10381607.0009.202

Ellis, L., Wahab, E. A., & Ratnasingan, M. (2013). Religiosity and fear of death: A three‐nation comparison. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 16(2), 179–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2011.652606 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2011.652606

Gallup. (2011). Muslim Americans: Faith freedom, and the future. Gallup.Com. https://news.gallup.com/poll/148931/Presentation-Muslim-Americans-Faith-Freedom-Future.aspx

Ghaffari, A., & Çiftçi, A. (2010). Religiosity and self-esteem of Muslim immigrants to the United States: The moderating role of perceived discrimination. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 20(1), 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508610903418038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10508610903418038

Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Public self and private self (pp. 189–212). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9564-5_10

Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Simon, L., & Breus, M. (1994). Role of consciousness and accessibility of death-related thoughts in mortality salience effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 627–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.627 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.627

Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (1997). Terror management theory of self-esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 61–139). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60016-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60016-7

Harmon-Jones, E., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & McGregor, H. (1997). Terror management theory and self-esteem: Evidence that increased self-esteem reduced mortality salience effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 24–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.24

Husain, W., Parveen, B., Jahrami, H., Ammar, A., & Trabelsi, K. (2024). The predictive role of religious beliefs, psychosocial illness, and aging on death anxiety among Christians and Muslims. Pastoral Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-024-01159-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-024-01159-2

Jamal, A. A. (2017). Trump(ing) on Muslim women: The gendered side of Islamophobia. Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, 13(3), 472–475. https://doi.org/10.1215/15525864-4179144 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/15525864-4179144

Jonas, E., & Fischer, P. (2006). Terror management and religion: Evidence that intrinsic religiousness mitigates worldview defense following mortality salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(3), 553–567. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.553 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.553

Khan, M. H., Adnan, H. M., Kaur, S., Khuhro, R. A., Asghar, R., & Jabeen, S. (2019). Muslims’ representation in Donald Trump’s anti-Muslim-Islam statement: A critical discourse analysis. Religions, 10(2), Article 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020115 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020115

Kunst, J. R., Tajamal, H., Sam, D. L., & Ulleberg, P. (2012). Coping with Islamophobia: The effects of religious stigma on Muslim minorities’ identity formation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(4), 518–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.12.014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.12.014

Kurth, J. (2003). Western civilization: Our tradition. Intercollegiate Review, 39(1/2), 5–13.

Lambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., Peak, S. A., Scherer, L. D., Schott, J. P., & Slochower, J. M. (2014). Toward a greater understanding of the emotional dynamics of the mortality salience manipulation: Revisiting the “affect-free” claim of terror management research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(5), 655–678. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036353 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036353

Lipka, M., & Hackett, C. (2017). Why Muslims are the world’s fastest-growing religious group. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/

Liu, Y., Hou, Y., & Hong, Y. Y. (2025). The profiles, predictors, and intergroup outcomes of cultural attachment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 51(3), 374–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231190753 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231190753

Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167292183006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167292183006

Major, B., & O’Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56(1), 393–421. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137

Mena, F. J., Padilla, A. M., & Maldonado, M. (1987). Acculturative stress and specific coping strategies among immigrant and later generation college students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9(2), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863870092006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863870092006

Mohammadzadeh, A., & Najafi, M. (2020). The comparison of death anxiety, obsession, and depression between Muslim population with positive and negative religious coping. Journal of Religion and Health, 59(2), 1055–1064. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-0679-y

Nacos, B. L., Nacos, B., & Torres-Reyna, O. (2007). Fueling our fears: Stereotyping, media coverage, and public opinion of Muslim Americans. Rowman & Littlefield.

Neimeyer, R., Wittkowski, J., & Moser, R. (2004). Psychological research on death attitudes: An overview and evaluation. Death Studies, 28, 309–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180490432324 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180490432324

Norenzayan, A., Dar‐Nimrod, I., Hansen, I. G., & Proulx, T. (2009). Mortality salience and religion: Divergent effects on the defense of cultural worldviews for the religious and the non-religious. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39(1), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.482 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.482

Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2002). Islamic culture and democracy: Testing the “clash of civilizations” thesis. Comparative Sociology, 1(3–4), 29. https://doi.org/10.1163/156913302100418592 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156913302100418592

Pew Research Center. (2011, August 30). Muslim Americans: No signs of growth in alienation or support for extremism. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. https://www.pewforum.org/2011/08/30/muslim-americans-no-signs-of-growth-in-alienation-or-support-for-extremism/

Pew Research Center. (2013, May 17). The religious affiliation of U.S. immigrants: Majority Christian, rising share of other faiths. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. https://www.pewforum.org/2013/05/17/the-religious-affiliation-of-us-immigrants/

Pew Research Center. (2017, August 9). Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/

Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (1999). A dual-process model of defense against conscious and unconscious death-related thoughts: An extension of terror management theory. Psychological Review, 106(4), 835–845. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.106.4.835

Qutb, S. (2006). Basic principles of the Islamic worldview. Islamic Publications International.

Rippy, A., & Newman, E. (2006). Perceived religious discrimination and its relationship to anxiety and paranoia among Muslim Americans. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 1, 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564900600654351 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15564900600654351

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/t01038-000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/t01038-000

Rosenblatt, A., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszcznyski, T., & Lyon, D. (1989). Evidence for terror management theory: I. The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who violate or uphold cultural values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(4), 681–690. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.681 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.681

Saleem, T., & Saleem, S. (2020). Religiosity and death anxiety: A study of Muslim Dars attendees. Journal of Religion and Health, 59(1), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00783-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00783-0

Samari, G., Catalano, R., Alcalá, H. E., & Gemmill, A. (2020). The Muslim Ban and preterm birth: Analysis of U.S. vital statistics data from 2009 to 2018. Social Science & Medicine, 265, Article 113544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113544 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113544

Schmeichel, B. J., & Martens, A. (2005). Self-affirmation and mortality salience: Affirming values reduces worldview defense and death-thought accessibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(5), 658–667. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271567 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271567

Smith, J. I. (2010). Islam in America. Columbia University Press.

Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 93–159). Academic Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60328-7

Steinman, C. T., & Updegraff, J. A. (2015). Delay and death-thought accessibility: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(12), 1682–1696. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215607843 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215607843

Stephenson, M. (2000). Development and validation of the Stephenson Multigroup Acculturation Scale (SMAS). Psychological Assessment, 12(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.12.1.77 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//1040-3590.12.1.77

Unger, J. B., Gallaher, P., Shakib, S., Ritt-Olson, A., Palmer, P. H., & Johnson, C. A. (2002). The AHIMSA Acculturation Scale: A new measure of acculturation for adolescents in a multicultural society. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 22(3), 225–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/02731602022003001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/02731602022003001

U.S. Religion Census (n.d.). Maps and data files for 2020: Religious statistics and demographics. https://www.usreligioncensus.org

Vail, K. E., Arndt, J., & Abdollahi, A. (2012). Exploring the existential function of religion and supernatural agent beliefs among Christians, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(10), 1288–1300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212449361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212449361

Warner, R. S. (2000). Religion and new (post-1965) immigrants: Some principles drawn from field research. American Studies, 41, 267–286.

Waters, M. C., & Gerstein Pineau, M. (Eds.). (2016). The integration of immigrants into American society. National Academies Press.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.54.6.1063

Wilde, A., & Joseph, S. (1997). Religiosity and personality in a Moslem context. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(5), 899–900. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00098-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00098-6

Yasien-Esmael, H., & Rubin, S. S. (2005). The meaning structures of Muslim bereavements in Israel: Religious traditions, mourning practices, and human experience. Death Studies, 29(6), 495–518. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180590962668 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180590962668

Yen, C. L., & Cheng, C. P. (2010). Terror management among Taiwanese: Worldview defence or resigning to fate? Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 13(3), 185–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839x.2010.01328.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2010.01328.x

Younis, M. (2015, December 11). Perceptions of Muslims in the United States: A review. Gallup.Com. https://news.gallup.com/opinion/gallup/187664/perceptions-muslims-united-states-review.aspx

Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2010). Religiosity as identity: Toward an understanding of religion from a social identity perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309349693 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309349693